Early Christian Views on the Soul and Materialism

Novatian, Treatise Concerning the Trinity Direct teaching

...f the flesh is destroyed? The same is true in other men also, who are not only flesh, but flesh and soul. In them, the flesh alone suffers decay and death, while the soul is seen to remain unharmed and beyond the laws of destruction and death. For our Lord Himself also said, urging us toward martyrdom and contempt for all human power, "Do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul." But if the immortal soul cannot be killed or slain in anyone else, although the body and flesh alone can be slain, how much more certainly could the Word of God, and God in Christ, not be put to death at all, although the flesh alone and the body were slain. For if in any man the soul has this excellence of immortality, that it cannot be slain, much more does the majesty of the Word of God have this power of not being slain. For if the power of men fails to kill the holy power of God, and if human cruelty fails to destroy the soul, much more it ought to fail to kill the Word of God. For as the soul itself, which was made by the Word of God, is not killed by men, certainly it should much more be believed that the Word of God cannot be destroyed. And if the bloody cruelty of men can do n

Lactantius, The Epitome of the Divine Institutes Direct teaching

In fact, many arguments can be gathered to show that souls are eternal. Plato says that whatever always moves itself, and has no beginning of motion, also has no end. He also says that the human soul always moves itself. And because it is able to reflect, quick to discover, ready to perceive, fit to learn, and because it remembers the past, understands the present, foresees the future, and holds knowledge of many subjects and skills, it is immortal, since it contains nothing mixed with the corruption of earthly heaviness. The eternity of the soul is also understood from virtue and pleasure. Pleasure is common to all animals, but virtue belongs only to man. The first is shameful, and the second is honorable. The first agrees with nature, and the second is against nature, unless the soul is immortal. For in defending faith and justice, virtue does not fear poverty, is not frightened by exile, does not dread imprisonment, does not shrink from pain, and does not refuse death. And because these things are contrary to nature, one of two things must be true. Either virtue is foolishness, if it stands in the way of benefits and harms life, or, if it is not foolishness, then the soul is imm

Origen, De Principiis (On First Principles) Direct teaching

If the heavenly virtues, then, partake of intellectual light, i.e., of divine nature, because they participate in wisdom and holiness, and if human souls, have partaken of the same light and wisdom, and thus are mutually of one nature and of one essence — then, since the heavenly virtues are incorruptible and immortal, the essence of the human soul will also be immortal and incorruptible.

Lactantius, On the Workmanship of God Direct teaching

Nor, therefore, do we fail to understand that the soul is immortal, since whatever is vigorous and is in motion by itself at all times, and cannot be seen or touched, must he eternal.

Gregory Thaumaturgus, On the Subject of the Soul Direct teaching

and the diverse is not the identical: consequently the soul, being simple, and not being made up of diverse parts, but being uncompound and indissoluble, must be, in virtue of that, incorruptible and immortal.

Peter of Alexandria, The Genuine Acts of Peter Direct teaching

1 Corinthians 15:53 Now the corruptible and mortal putting on immortality, what else is it but that which is sown in corruption and raised in incorruption, 1 Corinthians 5:42 — for the soul is not corruptible or mortal;

Tertullian, De Anima (On the Soul) Supporting witness

whereas the soul is immortal; and being immortal, it is therefore indissoluble;

Lactantius, The Divine Institutes Supporting witness

But the soul, because it is from heaven, is unsubstantial, everlasting, endued with sensibility, and full of lustre;

Lactantius, The Epitome of the Divine Institutes Supporting witness

the former is in accordance with nature, the latter is opposed to nature, unless the soul is immortal.

Apostolic Constitutions, Apostolic Constitutions Supporting witness

We acknowledge with us a soul that is incorporeal and immortal — not corruptible as bodies are, but immortal, as being rational and free.

Mathetes, Epistle to Diognetus Supporting witness

The immortal soul dwells in a mortal tabernacle;

Theophilus of Antioch, To Autolycus Supporting witness

Whence also by most persons the soul is called immortal.

Athenagoras, The Resurrection of the Dead Direct teaching

...f of the resurrection. For if the whole nature of human beings in general is made up of an immortal soul and a body fitted to it at creation, and if God assigned such a creation, such a life, and such a complete course of existence not to the nature of the soul by itself, nor to the nature of the body by itself, but to human beings made from both, then this was so that, after passing through their present life, they might arrive at one common end with the same elements of which they are made at birth and during life. It unavoidably follows that, since one living being is formed from these two parts, and this one living being experiences whatever the soul experiences and whatever the body experiences, and does whatever requires the judgment of the senses or of reason, the whole course of these things must be directed to one end. This is so that all these things, and by means of all these things — that is, a man's creation, a man's nature, a man's life, a man's actions and sufferings, his course of existence, and the end suited to his nature — may come together in one harmony and one shared experience. But if there is one harmony and one shared experience that belongs to the whole

Irenaeus, Against Heresies: Book V Direct teaching

...ies. The apostle calls these people "spiritual" because they share in the Spirit, not because their flesh has been stripped away and they have become purely spiritual. If someone removes the fleshly substance, which is God's workmanship, and considers only the purely spiritual, such a being would not be a spiritual person but just the spirit of a human or the Spirit of God. When the spirit, united with the soul, joins with God's workmanship, the person becomes spiritual and complete due to the Spirit's outpouring, making them in God's image and likeness. However, if the Spirit is missing from the soul, the person remains carnal and incomplete, possessing the image of God but not the likeness through the Spirit, making them imperfect. Additionally, if someone removes the image and the handiwork, they cannot understand this as being a human, but just a part of a human, or something else. The flesh formed is not a complete human on its own, just the body of a human and part of a human. The soul alone is not a human but a part of a human as well. The spirit, too, is not a human, as it is called the spirit, not a human; the mixture and union of all these make up the complete human. F

Athenagoras, A Plea for the Christians Supporting witness

...er it was spent badly or well, and who believe there is no resurrection, are the ones who think the soul dies with the body and is, so to speak, extinguished in it. Such people will hold back from no bold deed. But those who are convinced that nothing will escape God's examination, and that even the body which has served the irrational impulses and desires of the soul will be punished together with it, are not likely to commit even the smallest sin. But if it seems to anyone complete nonsense that a body which has decayed, been dissolved, and been reduced to nothing should be rebuilt, then we certainly cannot rightly be accused of wickedness toward those who do not believe. At most, we could be accused only of foolishness. For by the beliefs through which we deceive ourselves, we harm no one else. And it is not only our belief that bodies will rise again. Many philosophers also hold this same view. But this is not the right time to show that, because we might seem to bring in matters not related to the subject before us. That would happen either by speaking about the intelligible and the sensible, and the nature of each, or by arguing that the incorporeal is older than the corpo

Athenagoras, The Resurrection of the Dead Supporting witness

For if good deeds are rewarded, then the body would clearly be treated unjustly. It shared with the soul in the hard work connected with doing good, but it would not share in the reward for those good deeds. Also, the soul is often excused for certain faults because of the body's weakness and need, yet the body itself is kept from any share in the good deeds done, even though during life it helped bear the labor for them. On the other hand, if faults are judged, then the soul is not treated fairly either, if it alone pays the penalty for faults it committed after being urged by the body and drawn away by it to its own desires and movements. Sometimes the soul is overpowered and carried off. At other times it is drawn very violently. And sometimes it goes along with the body out of care and concern for preserving it. How could it be anything but unjust for the soul to be judged by itself for things toward which, by its own nature, it feels no desire, no movement, and no impulse, such as sexual immorality, violence, greed, injustice, and the unjust acts that come from these? For if most evils of this kind come from people's failure to master the passions that tempt them, and if they

Irenaeus, Against Heresies: Book V Supporting witness

They do not take this fact into consideration, that there are three things out of which, as I have shown, the complete man is composed —flesh, soul, and spirit.

Athenagoras, Connection to 1 Corinthians 15:53 Supporting witness

It was not for the sake of the soul alone that the resurrection has been promised... the resurrection involves the whole man — soul and body.

Irenaeus, Against Heresies: Book V Supporting witness

... a person does not receive the Spirit through faith, they remain in their old state and, being mere flesh and blood, cannot inherit the kingdom of God. Thus, the apostle rightly states, “Flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God,” and, “Those who are in the flesh cannot please God.” These words don't reject the body but show that the Spirit must be infused into it. For this reason, he says, “This mortal must put on immortality, and this corruptible must put on incorruption.” He further clarifies, “But you are not in the flesh, but in the Spirit, if indeed the Spirit of God dwells in you.” He explains further, “The body is dead because of sin; but the Spirit is life because of righteousness. But if the Spirit of Him who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, He who raised Christ from the dead will also give life to your mortal bodies through His Spirit dwelling in you.” And again in the Epistle to the Romans, he says, “For if you live after the flesh, you shall die.” He doesn't forbid them from living in the flesh—he was in the flesh himself when he wrote this—but he warns against the desires of the flesh, which bring death. Therefore, he continues, “But if you, throug

1 Thessalonians 5:23 Direct teaching

Now may the God of peace Himself sanctify you completely; and may your whole spirit, soul, and body be preserved blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.

1 Corinthians 15:45 Supporting witness

And so it is written, The first man Adam was made a living soul; the last Adam was made a quickening spirit.

Philippians 3:21 Supporting witness

Who shall change our vile body, that it may be fashioned like unto his glorious body, according to the working whereby he is able even to subdue all things unto himself.

1 Corinthians 15:54 Supporting witness

When the perishable puts on the imperishable, and the mortal puts on immortality, then shall come to pass the saying that is written: “Death is swallowed up in victory.”

1 Corinthians 15:44 Supporting witness

It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body. If there is a natural body, there is also a spiritual body.

Matthew 16:26 Direct teaching

For what profit is it to a man if he gains the whole world, and loses his own soul? Or what will a man give in exchange for his soul?

Matthew 10:28 Direct teaching

And do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather fear him who can destroy both soul and body in hell.

Luke 12:19 Supporting witness

And I will say to my soul, Soul, thou hast much goods laid up for many years; take thine ease, eat, drink, and be merry.

1 John 2:16 Supporting witness

For all that is in the world—the desires of the flesh and the desires of the eyes and pride in possessions—is not from the Father but is from the world.

1 Timothy 6:7 Supporting witness

for we brought nothing into the world, and we cannot take anything out of the world.

Luke 12:15 Supporting witness

And he said unto them, Take heed, and beware of covetousness: for a man's life consisteth not in the abundance of the things which he possesseth.

Luke 12:23 Supporting witness

The life is more than meat, and the body is more than raiment.

Didache, Connection to Matthew 16:26 Supporting witness

For what is a man profited, if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his own souL? or what shall a man give in exchange for his soul? "

Clement of Rome, Connection to Matthew 16:26 Supporting witness

"For what will it profit if a man gain the whole world, and lose his own soul? "

Ignatius of Antioch, Connection to Matthew 16:26 Supporting witness

"For what shall a man be profited, if he gain the whole world, but lose his own soul? "

Polycarp, Connection to 1 Timothy 6:7 Supporting witness

Knowing, therefore, that "as we brought nothing into the world, so we can carry nothing out,"

Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata (Miscellanies) Direct teaching

...oned: "Having therefore these promises, beloved, let us cleanse our hearts from every defilement of flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness in the fear of God," 2 Corinthians 7:1. "For I am jealous over you with God's jealousy; for I have betrothed you to one husband, to present you as a pure virgin to Christ," 2 Corinthians 11:2. And the Church is not joined in marriage to another, since she has the Bridegroom. But each one of us has the right to marry whatever lawful wife he wishes, that is, in first marriages. "But I fear that, as the serpent deceived Eve by his craftiness, your minds may be corrupted from the simplicity that is in Christ," 2 Corinthians 11:3. The Apostle spoke very devoutly, and like a teacher. For this reason the admirable Peter also says, "Beloved, I beg you as strangers and pilgrims, keep yourselves from fleshly desires, which fight against the soul, having your conduct good among the Gentiles." For this is the will of God: that by doing good you should silence the ignorance of foolish men, "as free, and not using freedom as a covering for evil, but as servants of God." In the same way Paul also writes in the Epistle to the Romans: "How shall we who died to

Origen, De Principiis (On First Principles) Direct teaching

and when He says that the flesh is weak, He does not say that the soul is willing, but the spirit: whence it appears that the soul is something intermediate between the weak flesh and the willing spirit.

Irenaeus, Against Heresies: Book V Supporting witness

then [comes] that which is between these two—that is the soul, which sometimes indeed, when it follows the spirit, is raised up by it, but sometimes it sympathizes with the flesh, and falls into carnal lusts.

Dionysius of Alexandria, Exegetical Fragments Supporting witness

For the flesh, when luxuriously nurtured, wars against the soul, and rises in revolt against the spirit.

Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata (Miscellanies) Supporting witness

He also withstands the corporeal soul, putting a bridle-bit on the restive irrational spirit: For the flesh lusts against the Spirit.

Novatian, Treatise Concerning the Trinity Supporting witness

... govern themselves with moderation according to His decrees. For this is He who desires against the flesh, because the flesh resists against the Spirit. This is He who restrains insatiable desires, controls immoderate lusts, quenches unlawful fires, conquers reckless impulses, repels drunkenness, checks avarice, drives away luxurious revellings, joins love, binds together affections, keeps down sects, orders the rule of truth, overcomes heretics, turns out the wicked, and guards the Gospel. Of this the same apostle says, “We have not received the spirit of the world, but the Spirit which is of God.” Concerning Him he says with joy, “And I think also that I have the Spirit of God.” Of Him he says, “The Spirit of the prophets is subject to the prophets.” Of Him also he says, “Now the Spirit speaks plainly, that in the last times some shall depart from the faith, giving heed to seducing spirits and doctrines of demons, who speak lies in hypocrisy, having their conscience cauterized.” Established in this Spirit, no one ever calls Jesus anathema. No one has ever denied Christ to be the Son of God, or rejected God the Creator. No one utters words of his own contrary to the Scriptures.

Victorinus, Commentary on the Apocalypse Supporting witness

... govern themselves with moderation according to His decrees. For this is He who desires against the flesh, because the flesh resists against the Spirit. This is He who restrains insatiable desires, controls immoderate lusts, quenches unlawful fires, conquers reckless impulses, repels drunkenness, checks avarice, drives away luxurious revellings, links love, binds affections together, keeps down sects, orders the rule of truth, overcomes heretics, turns out the wicked, and guards the Gospel. Of this the same apostle says, “We have not received the spirit of the world, but the Spirit which is of God.” Concerning Him he says with joy, “And I think also that I have the Spirit of God.” Of Him he says, “The Spirit of the prophets is subject to the prophets.” Of Him also he tells us, “Now the Spirit speaks plainly, that in the last times some shall depart from the faith, giving heed to seducing spirits and doctrines of demons, who speak lies in hypocrisy, having their conscience cauterized.” Established in this Spirit, no one ever calls Jesus anathema. No one has ever denied Christ to be the Son of God, or rejected God the Creator. No one utters words of his own contrary to the Scriptu

Lactantius, The Divine Institutes Supporting witness

For, since man is composed of flesh and spirit, and the spirit must earn immortality by works of righteousness, the flesh, since it is earthly, and therefore mortal, draws with itself the spirit linked to it, and leads it from immortality to death.

1 Peter 2:11 Direct teaching

Beloved, I urge you as sojourners and exiles to abstain from the passions of the flesh, which wage war against your soul.

Galatians 5:17 Supporting witness

For the desires of the flesh are against the Spirit, and the desires of the Spirit are against the flesh, for these are opposed to each other, to keep you from doing the things you want to do.

John 3:6 Supporting witness

That which is born of the flesh is flesh; and that which is born of the Spirit is spirit.

John 6:63 Supporting witness

It is the Spirit who gives life; the flesh is no help at all. The words that I have spoken to you are spirit and life.